Satows perception of the Meiji revolution

Between 1853 and 1868, Japanese society underwent a profound and violent societal, economic, and cultural upheaval, the likes of which it had not seen in over 200 years. The ruling military government of Japan, the clan-pure Tokugawa Shogunate and its ancient feudal system of governance, disintegrated under internal pressure to reform to meet the challenges of the Industrial Age, embodied by foreign interests, particularly that of the United States and England, which used the threat of their military and technological superiority to force the Japanese to accept trade agreements. In doing so, the Shogunate wrote its final chapter and setthe state for a return to power of the Emperor, a quasi-religiousposition which since the 1600s had been relegated to ceremonial dutiesas the spiritual godfather of Japan, while the Shogunate and itssamurai warrior culture administered the country’s affairs. TheBritish Empire of the time was preoccupied initially with wars withRussia and Chin a, but observed with keen interest the initial rumblingsof discontent and reform within Japan, precipitated by the bold movesof the United States to establish relations with Japan. Once theBritish wars had been concluded and Americans had done the proverbialdirty advance work of opening Japan up, the British established theirown presence within Japan as it underwent a rapid societalmetamorphosis. Over time, various representatives of foreigngovernments, most notably the eminent British interpreter and diplomatErnest Satow, went beyond active interest to active involvement in theinternal affairs of the Japanese transformation from Tokugawa Shogunaterule to restoration of the power of the Emperor, known as the MeijiRevolution. Some of this involvement was self-serving and destructive;some of it was noble, altruistic, and reflected a genuine appreciationand compassion for the Japanese and their unique, noble, andastonishingly complex culture. As with most chapters in history, it isofte n difficult to discern in retrospect where altruism andself-interest intersected and diverged; the history of Japan’swrenching introduction into the modern age is particularly messy, butonly more fascinating for being as such. In order to explore this era, some chronological narrative is ofcourse required, but a strictly linear structure is not necessarily themost effective way to approach the issues. Therefore, thisdissertation will alternate between historical narrative and culturalexplication, sometimes moving backwards and forwards in time, andindulging in anecdotal tangents as well as delvings into the personalhistories of some of the players in question, all in hopes of paintinga full and complex picture of the interlocking forces – Japanese,American, and British, which turned this tiny country upside down inthe short space of 15 years and set the stage for its rise to globalpower. (A full investigation of the Japanese relations with Russia,China, and the Dutc h could easily comprise a dissertation of its own,but we will limit most of our focus here to the often tragic, but oftenedifying interaction of the Japanese with the two aforementionedWestern powers.) Lastly, it is important to note that no explorationof Japan’s relations with the West during the Tokugama Shogunate /Meiji Revolution era, or any era for that matter, is complete withoutdwelling occasionally in details of Japanese culture, which arealternately arcane and compelling. Such moments will be interwovenwith the historical narratives and observations as required. In 1854, the United States and Japan signed the Treaty of Kanagawa,which opened up Japan economically and culturally to the West for thefirst time. Up until this point in time, ancient Japanese law forbadetrade with any foreign nations other than China and the Dutch, thelatter of which were allowed to visit Japan twice a year to do businesssolely at the port of Nagasaki; even then, the foreigners’ p resence wasconfined to the small island of Deshima. The signing of the treaty wasa momentous occasion for both the United States and Japan, but it wasnot necessarily an egalitarian or mutually beneficial agreement, nordid both parties come to the signing ceremony of their own free will.Commodore Matthew Perry, representing the United States, essentiallyforced the Japanese into signing the treaty by virtue of the threat ofhis heavily armed four-warship fleet which arrived in Edo Bay (Tokyo’sharbor; Tokyo was known as Edo during Tokugawa Shogunate dynasty) – aport forbidden to foreigners in July 1853 and refused to departuntil the Japanese consented to enter into a trade and peace agreementbetween the two nations. Perry was acting under orders from thehighest authority in the United States, his Commander in Chief,President Millard Fillmore. Perry arrived bearing a letter fromPresident Fillmore to Emperor K?mei (who reigned from 1831-1867 and wasthe 121st imperial ruler of Japan). The letter was an eager one, andcontained several passages full of obsequious language: I entertain the kindest feelings toward your majestys person andgovernment, and that I have no other object in sending [CommodorePerry] to Japan but to propose to your imperial majesty that the UnitedStates and Japan should live in friendship and have cornmercialintercourse with each other†¦ The Constitution and laws of the UnitedStates forbid all interference with the religious or political concernsof other nations. I have particularly charged Commodore Perry toabstain from every act which could possibly disturb the tranquility ofyour imperial majestys dominions†¦ We have directed Commodore Perry tobeg your imperial majestys acceptance of a few presents. They are ofno great value in themselves; but some of them may serve as specimensof the articles manufactured in the United States, and they areintended as tokens of our sincere and respectful friendship.(Fillmore, 1852) However, the letter also contained notable amounts of braggadocioregarding the economic and technological might at the disposal of theUnited States: The [territories of the United States of America reach from ocean toocean, and our Territory of Oregon and State of California lie directlyopposite to the dominions of your imperial majesty. Our steamships cango from California to Japan in eighteen days†¦ Our great State ofCalifornia produces about sixty millions of dollars in gold every year,besides silver, quicksilver, precious stones, and many other valuablearticles†¦ America, which is sometimes called the New World, was firstdiscovered and settled by the Europeans. For a long time there were buta few people, and they were poor. They have now become quite numerous;their commerce is very extensive. (Fillmore, 1852) The subtext was clear. Though polite and solicitous to almost acomic fault, Fillmore made it clear that it was in Japan’s bestinterests to cooperate with the United States in opening itself up toforeign trade, or Japan might meet the same fate as Mexico, which theUnited States had obliterated and territorially eviscerated in a warending just four years prior to Perry’s visit to Japan. To punctuatethe subtext of his letter, Fillmore did not send Perry across thePacific Ocean in a yacht armed only with flowers; Perry sailed intoYedo Bay with an unmistakable symbol of United States might, hisstate-of-the-art mini-fleet. Why the particular interest in Japan, a relatively small nation? Itwas strategically located, a gateway to the Far East, and influenceover/in, and/or control of Japan would greatly expand American’smilitary and economic power. Japan was also a nation of importantnatural resources that could be used to feed the hungry monster of theWest’s burgeoning Industrial Revolution. As samurai scholar MarcelThach notes, â€Å"after the colonization of China, the Western Powers America in particular tur ned their eye towards Japan and saw acountry rich with coal deposits, one which they could colonize andexploit as they had China and other East Asian nations such as India.†(Thach, 2002) The Japanese were initially unmoved by President Fillmore’s letter,leaving Commodore Perry to stew in the harbor with the expectation thathe would simply tire and go home. This was not to be the case,however, as Perry quickly saw fit to turn up the proverbial heat on theJapanese by sending a letter of his own to the Emperor. In it, Perryreiterated some of the niceties expressed by President Fillmore, butthen delivered some language of a level of candor to which the Japanesewere not accustomed: [I] hope that the Japanese government will see the necessity ofaverting unfriendly collision between the two nations, by respondingfavourably to the propositions of amity, which are now made in allsincerity†¦ Many of the large ships-of-war destined to visit Japan havenot yet arrived in these seas, though they are hourly expected; and theundersigned, as an evidence of his friendly intentions, has brought butfour of the smaller ones, designing, should it become necessary, toreturn to Edo in the ensuing spring with a much larger force. (Perry, 7July 1853) The Japanese remained unmoved, provoking Commodore Perry’s temper.Diplomatic subtleties were abandoned, and on July 14, 1853, hedelivered an imperious admonishment accusing the Japanese of a sinagainst God, in effect, and threatened to fire upon the harbor: You have †¦ acted against divine principles and your sin cannot begreater than it is†¦ If you are still to disagree we would then take uparms and inquire into the sin against the divine principles†¦When oneconsiders such an occasion†¦ one will realize the victory will naturallybe ours. (Perry, 14 July 1853) At this juncture, the virulent and ingrained xenophobia of theJapanese culture was forced to yield to common sense. The Japa nese hadno navy to speak of, and though Perry’s four ships were unlikely tocomprise enough force to cause the Japanese to comply, the threat of animminent arrival of a bona fide armada induced the Japanese tocapitulate and sign the treaty of Kanagawa. (In the wake of thecapitulation, the Japanese dispatched an order to their Dutch tradingpartners to commission the building of a warship, which was named theKanrin-maru and was 49 meters in length, with 12 canons and threemasts. It was delivered somewhat belatedly in 1857, but was put togood use as a military training vessel.) It is important to pause here to explicate the amorphous term â€Å"theJapanese.† At the time of Perry’s arrival in Tokyo, Japan was indeedtechnically ruled by an Emperor, but he was largely a spiritual andtraditional figurehead who wielded minimal political power. The locusof decision-making was controlled by a chief shà ´gun (which in Japanesemeans â€Å"great general†), a direct descendent of Tokugawa leyasu, who in1603 defeated rival warlords to bring a semblance of organizationalcoherence to a Japanese society dominated by the fractious conflictsbetween feudal warlords. (In fact, the Tokugawa Shogunate, as theorganization came to be known, ruled in relative peace for the next 250 years in what was called the Edo Period, after the ancient name for thecity of Tokyo.) From 1603 on, the chief shà ´gun henceforth alwayscarried the Tokugawa clan title, and maintained power by executingrivals and replacing them with family members and trusted allies, whowere forbidden to marry outside the Tokugawa clan and allowed to ruletheir individual local dominions with a relatively free and arbitraryhand as long as they loyally served the chief shà ´gun. Furthermore, allother shà ´guns and feudal lords were forced to attend a grand gatheringin Tokyo / Edo every other year under the watchful eye of the Tokugawashà ´gun, where loyalties were reinforced and tested, an d suspectedtraitors ferreted out. Additionally, other lords were required to keepheirs or wives in Tokyo while they were administering to their dutiesin their respective feudal domains, which was another powerful tool ofthe Tokugawa clan to maintain its control. A strict hierarchical castesystem had also established by the Tokugawa Shogunate; atop thispyramid was the infamous warrior class of the samurai, the subjects ofmuch awe and reverence among Western cultures. Below the samurai werefarmers, artisans, and traders. Meanwhile, the Emperor himselfresided in Kyoto, accompanied by a few servants and bureaucrats to tendto his ceremonial needs, but he exercised virtually no governing powerat all. It was under this repressive cloak that the xenophobic culture ofJapan was cultivated and its restrictive trade policies enacted intolaw. The third in the Tokugawa shà ´gun lineage, Tokugawa Iemitsu,established the rules forbidding almost all foreign trade andinteraction. Only inbound tra ding ships were permitted, and of thesevisitors the Dutch and the Chinese were the only ones allowed. Thiswas not merely an exercise in preserving Japanese culture purity,however. Tokugawa Iemitsu was keenly concerned with maintaining hisclan’s power over the opposing feudal warlords, and he knew thatcultural, religious, military, and economic influences from othercountries could destabilize the already precarious balance of power.The economic and cultural modernization and maturation within the largecities was, by the 19th century, starting to create conflict within thecaste system, which began to teeter under the weight of its ownstubborn antiquity. This was the complex environment into whichCommodore Perry sailed his four ships in July 1853: a paranoid,secretive, and warlike culture steeped in Byzantine traditions but alsomilitarily and technologically steeped in the past, and thus unable todefend its sovereignty. The forced signing of the treaty was thebeginning of a long road of resentment towards the United States andthe West that culminated in Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor on December7, 1941. In the immediate meantime, however, the Treaty of Kanagawa wasfinally signed on March 31, 1854 after Commodore Perry’s return toJapan. It stipulated that the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate would beopened to American ships seeking supplies, that American sailors whohad been shipwrecked would be rescued and well-treated, and agreed thatan American consulate would be established in Shimoda for the purposesof negotiating a further and more comprehensive trade agreement. Thistreaty was the beginning of a succession of agreements forced upon theJapanese that brought about a great influx of foreign investment,trade, and business into Japan, but the economic effects of thisphenomenon were not all salutary. One such deleterious effect wasmassive inflation of the Japanese currency. The caste system under theTokugawa Shogunate mandated a rigid system o f taxation on thepeasantry; the taxes were fixed and not fairly tied to inflation orother economic vagaries, and thus the taxes gathered by the rulingshà ´guns fell steeply in the wake of the Treaty of Kanagawa, causingironic clashes between the well-to-do working class and their rulers.Arguably better warriors than macro-economists, the shà ´gun were unableto curtail this inflation, and the resultant economic instability andhardships inflicted on the Japanese people caused a popular unrest thatcould not be quelled for very long, and fact led to civil war. By1867, the Shogunate had been overthrown in what became known as theMeiji Rebellion, which restored the Emperor to true power beyond theceremonial, and brought about a thorough reform of the organization ofJapanese government and society. One of the intermediary steps on the way to the weakening of theShogunate and the restoration of the Emperor’s rule was another treatybetween the United States, The Treaty of Amity a nd Commerce Between theUnited States and Japan, better known historically as the Treaty ofTownsend Harris, named after the persistent American diplomat whopersuaded the Japanese to sign it. As alluded to previously, theTreaty of Kanagawa had stipulated the creation of an American Consulatein Japan, which would open up negotiations on the specifics of tradenegotiation. President Franklin Pierce, who had replaced PresidentFillmore in March 1853, dispatched Townsend Harris from New York inNovember 1855 to establish the Consulate and coax the Japanese intoactual trade, not simply the intent to trade. Harris arrived inShimoda in August 1856, having cannily brought along a Dutch-speakingsecretary and interpreter named Henry Heuksen to facilitate thedifficult and delicate nuances of discourse with the Japanese.However, the Japanese, in a typical stalling maneuver, asked Harris toleave and return in a year. He refused; the Japanese asked him toproceed to Nagasaki, which he declined to do; t hen, in a final – andrather creative – attempt to rid themselves of Harris, they asked himto write a letter back to the President James Buchanan (who hadsucceeded Pierce in the November 1856 election) requesting acancellation of his diplomatic mission. The indefatigable Harrisrefused this request as well, and eventually the Japanese allowed himto set up an office at the port of Shimoda. Nonetheless, theycontinued to stonewall Harris by referring any request or question,whether trivial or consequential, to the Emperor’s palace in Edo.Harris demanded an audience with the shà ´gun in the capital, but over ayear passed before Harris received permission to travel to Edo. Harris did not sit idly by, however; he used the intervening time tocultivate favor and good will with the powers-that-were in Shimoda, thelocal members of theTokugawa bafuku. (Bafuku is a Japanese wordloosely translated to mean â€Å"tent government† and is an arm, during thishistorical p eriod, of the Tokugawa Shogunate) Harris was well awarethat the British had paid a visit to the Japanese in 1854 that did notgo well and left a bitter taste in the proverbial mouths of bothparties. The British, mired in a conflict with the Russians that ledto the Crimean War (1854-1856) had dispatched Sir James Stirling fromChina in 1855 to request that the Japanese deny Russian ships access totheir ports and attempt to secure some sort of initial tradeunderstanding with the Japanese. Stirling did conclude a treaty, butit was hopelessly vague and of limited utlity, in part because of anincompetent translator (a hitch keenly noted by Harris) and was sent onhis way. The British lurched from the Crimean War to the Second OpiumWar with China in 1856, distracting them from immediate focus on Japan,but Harris correctly surmised it would only be a matter of time beforethe British turned their attention to Japan again, and used it, albeitwith some fictional license, as leverage in his negot iations againstthe Japanese. Despite managing to offend the chief shogun, the aged TokugawaIesada, and his Court by wearing shoes during his visit to the Palacein Edo in December 1857, Harris’ otherwise impeccable statesmanshipimpressed the Shogunate sufficiently that they gave their blessing forthe treaty negotiations, and they gave permission for Bakufu GrandCouncillor Hotta Masayoshi, with whom Harris had been negotiating, tocontinue working with Harris to complete the treaty. Harrisimmediately set to work convincing Masayoshi with a combination ofexaltations of American good intentions and fears of an inevitableBritish arrival on Japanese soil which would demand treaty terms farless generous than that ‘suggested’ by the American. Specifically,Harris preyed on the fears of the Japanese that the only thing standingbetween Japan and the imperial pressure of the British was theirsoon-to-be-concluded war against China. The Japanese had long heldChina in a place of cultural reverence in the Far East and had beenprofoundly shocked at the relative ease with which the French andBritish were defeating the Chinese in the Second Opium War. Aware ofthis, naturally, Harris used it to his advantage. In his December 12,1857 audience with Masayoshi, Harris had this to say: On my way to Japan I met the English governor of Hong-Kong, JohnBowring, who told me that he was about to be appointed an ambassador togo to Japan, and I have received four letters from him since my arrivalin Japan. Our conversation was of course private, but in his letters hediscusses Japanese Government matters. He says he intends to bring withhim a larger fleet than the Japanese have ever seen, and anchor atYedo, {Edo] where the discussions will be carried on. He says also thatYedo is the only place to hold consultation with the Japanese; that hisobject is, first, to get permission for a minister or agent of Englandto reside in Yedo, and, secondly, to get permission to carry on freetrade at several places in Japan. If these two things are not grantedwar will be declared at once. The sending of this ambassador he says isdelayed by the war in China. He said he would be in Yedo in the thirdmonth, but he has been detained by the war. (Harris, 1857) In another dramatic touch, Harris also asserted that the Britishintended to addict the entirety of the Japanese population to opium: It appears that the English think the Japanese are fond ofopium, and they want to bring it here also. If a man use opium once hecannot stop it, and it becomes a life-long habit to use opium; hencethe English want to introduce it into Japan. The President of theUnited States thinks that for the Japanese opium is more dangerous thanwar. (Harris, 1857) What Harris neglected to mention was that in truth, the British wereloathe to try to force an opening into Japan at this particularjuncture in time. They had squandered vast military and politicalcapital in pursuit of their war with China, and there was domesticunrest to contend with as well: Despite popular perceptions of British imperialism at this period,official British policy was in fact against the use of force in openingup Japan and British Ministers were mindful of humanitarianconsiderations that might lead to criticism in Parliament. Theyinstructed British representatives to avoid provocative acts and thethreat or use of force. (Cortazzi, 1999) Nonetheless, Harris then went on to claim that the United States hadstudiously avoided joining Britain in the war against China, despitethe fact that newly elected President Buchanan was a veteran diplomatand former Secretary of State who, in his former diplomatic position,and now, as President-elect, was actively working towards mending oldgrievances with Britain. Harris suggested that if the Japanese come tomutually satisfactory terms with the United States, particularly withrespect to the issue of opium trade – Harris suggested that theJapa nese could burn any opium which American traders might bring toports in the future – then in effect, the United States would form a defacto protective buffer between Japan and the European powers, and atthe very least, treaty terms with Britain or France could be no worsefor the Japanese than the benevolent terms of a treaty with the UnitedStates. In fact, the treaty proposed (in Article II) that in anydispute between Japan and European powers, the United States presidentwould serve as mediator. Hotta Masayoshi was no fool, and despite the fact that the Shogunatehad responded to Commodore Perry’s presence by commissioning militaryvessels from its Dutch trading partners, Masayoshi knew the Japanesehad little choice at this particular juncture in time but to accede toHarris’ terms. Negotiations on Treaty of Townsend Harris wereconcluded in February 1858 and the treaty was signed on July 29, 1858.(Ironically, Commodore Perry died in New York City the same day.)H arris, never one to miss an opportunity for some patriotic publicrelations, ensured that the treaty was stipulated to take effect onJuly 4, 1859, on American Independence Day. Little did the Japaneseknow that they had taken another ominous step towards the erosion oftheir own cultural-economic independence. The treaty provided for the opening of four additional ports toAmerican trading ships: Kanagawa and Nagasaki, on July 4, 1859;Niigata, on the January 1, 1860; and Hyogo, on the January 1, 1863; theport of Shimoda would be closed to American beginning in January 1860.Starting on July 4, 1862, Americans would also be allowed to take upresidence in Edo. It provided for tariffs to be applied to Americangoods imported into Japan and exported to the United States, andforbade the trade of opium between the Unites States and Japan. Thetariffs – unsurprisingly favored imported American products with afive percent tax on most goods and raw materials. The treatystipulated that th is tariff was fixed until the treaty came up forrevision and renegotiation in 1872, sowing the seeds for the economicinstability, alluded to above, that led to the downfall of theShogunate. In particularly surprising concession, the treatystipulated that Americans in Japan would be allowed free exercise oftheir religious beliefs, which extended to permission to constructplaces of worship. This was a significant break with Japanesetradition, which had long been steeped with animosity towardsChristianity. In fact, Christianity was essentially forbidden, andHarris had taken a considerable personal risk by making a show of hisChristian beliefs when he visited the Shogunate in Edo in 1858.Despite a clause in the treaty that seemed to forbid Christianproselytizing (â€Å"The Americans and Japanese shall not do anything thatmay be calculated to excite religious animosity† (Article VII), theinflux of Christianity into the Japanese homeland was deeply offensiveto many traditionalist a nd contributed to the erosion of support forthe Shogunate. Another interesting stipulation of the treaty is that diplomaticenvoys from Japan would be sent to the United States for the purposesof cultural exchange and for a ‘formal’ treaty-signing ceremony. ThreeJapanese were selected for the journey: Shimmi Masaoki, the seniorambassador, who was only 35 years of age; Oguri Tadamasu, who carriedthe title of ‘official inspector’ for the diplomatic mission; andMurgaki Norimasa, who kept a detailed diary of the delegation’s visit.Each were samurai warriors, consistent with the ruling class from whichthey came, and knew next to nothing of American culture or thepeculiarities of Western culture, much less the American government;for example, the Japanese found it bizarre that the Americans had gonethrough three elected leaders in a peaceful transition of power betweenthe time Commodore Perry had paid his infamous visit and the Japanesedelegation left to visit the United States. In an attempt to showstrength and regal power, the three Japanese did not travel alone –their party numbered 77, including six cooks, 51 guards and servants,three doctors, and three interpreters. It was quite a showcase: On February 13, 1860, the ambassadors and their staff sailed fromYokohama with 50 tons of Japanese baggage (including the treaty in itsspecial box), 100,000 readily negotiable Mexican dollars, and a largesupply of Japanese food. Appropriately, perhaps, the vessel thatcarried them from Japan to San Francisco was the navy frigate Powhatan,one of the steam-powered paddle-wheelers Perry had employed inopening Japan. (Finn, 2002) The America into which the Japanese were received in May 1860, wasteetering on the precipice of a civil war which would forever alter itsdestiny, mirroring the dark seeds of revolution which were germinatingback home in Japan. To say that the Japanese experienced culture shockwas an understatement; it was a precursor to the shocks that wouldreverberate through Japanese culture in their homeland due to thefloodgates of external Western cultural influence that were beingopened by the Harris Townsend Treaty that the Japanese envoys signedwith President Buchanan on May 18. Upon their return home in November 1860, the Japanese delegation wasgreeted coolly, as the elements in the Shogunate that had approved thetreaty had begun to fall from favor. Murgaki Norimasa and ShimmiMasaoki received promotions but were soon forced into retirement.Oguri Tadamasu went on to become a powerful military leader for theShogunate, but he refused to accept their downfall and the eventualre-ascension of the Emperor; he and and his son were executed in 1868. The interior map of Japanese political and cultural power was atumultuous mess by the time the delegation returned to Japan. TheTokugawa Shogunate had splintered into two warring factions due to thecontroversy regarding the signings of the two treatie s with the UnitedStates and fears of imminent meddling by the British into Japaneseaffairs. Tokugawa Iesada had become an old and infirm man and wasbarely able to carry out his duties during the negotiations over theTownsend Harris Treaty. Compounding the fractious debate over whetheror not to agree to the treaty was a struggle brewing over who wouldsucceed Iesada, as Iesada had no natural heir. The two leadingcontenders were Tokugawa Yoshinobu (aka Keiki), and a 12-year old boy,the Daimyo of Kii. In an attempt to solidify the ebbing power of theTokugawa clan and to end the debate over the the treaty signings, thelatter of which he had brokered, Hotta Masayoshi broke with precedentand traveled to Kyoto to visit Emperor Komei to seek his approval forthe Harris Treaty and for the ascension of the Daimyo of Kii to headthe Shogunate. Unfortunately for Hotta, his gamble backfired. TheEmperor communicated his unhappiness with the treaties and refused tooffer his support for Tokugawa Yoshi nobu / Keiki. Hotta was humiliatedand was replaced in April 1858 by Ii Naosuke, who was appointedTokugawa Regent, making him the effective military leader of Japan andhead of the shogun council. Ii immediately approved the Townsend Harris Treaty, effectivelysnubbing the Emperor, which caused a widespread rebellion amongstImperial Japanese loyalists who literally revered the Emperor as a godand who viewed action against his wishes to be a mortal sin.Undaunted, Ii then proceeded to arbitrarily appointed the boy Daimyo ofKii as the Shogunate heir, spawning a massive rebellion. Those whoopposed his sanctioning of the Treaty and/or his appointment of theShogunate heir were executed en masse, in a bloodbath dubbed the AnseiPurge. Being of tender age, naturally, the Daimyo of Kii – who assumedthe name Tokugawa Iemochi was unable to assert his sovereign will orassume his duties, leaving Ii firmly entrenched in power, or so hethought. His rule did not last long; he was beheaded by anti-foreigner, pro-Emperor elements in March 1860. After Ii wasassassinated, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, who had been Tokugawa Iemochi’searlier rival for the position of Shogun, assumed effective control ofthe Shogunate by assuming a position of power similar to the one heldby Ii and Hotta before him. After Tokugawa Iemochi’s death in 1866,Tokugawa Yoshinobu assumed the official ceremonial title and power ofShogun. He was to be the fifteenth and last Shogun in Japanesehistory. Certainly, the arrival of the Americans and the treaties they forcedupon the Shogunate were a leading cause of their downfall, but theShogunate was already weakening under its own antiquated weight by thetime Commodore Perry arrived in Japan in 1853. Though very stable andconsistent, the philosophy and structure of the Shogunate governmentwas change-averse to a fault; it was 200 years old, and had simplyoutlived its usefulness: The simple concept of the division of classes into rulers, warriors an dcommoners had little relation to Japan of the 19th century with itsteeming cities, rich merchants, restless samurai and discontentpeasantry†¦ Despite the division of the land into a large number offeudal fiefs, the people had developed a strong sense of nationalconsciousness. The growth of nationalism and the development of amodern commercial economy had made Japan ready for the more efficientpolitical forms of the modern nation. (Norman, 1940) To some degree, the nationalism of the Japanese was reflective ofthe psychology of isolation, i.e., the Japanese, knowing nothing otherthan their own culture, naturally viewed it as superior. Theappearance and encroachment of a culture, such as Americans’, which wastechnologically superior, was a profound shock to the Japanese. TheShogunate, at a time when putting forth a unified and strong front waskey, blundered initially by putting Commodore Perry’s initial treatyproposal up for public debate, which was an unusual mo ve for theJapanese, signaling to the population that it was weak. Hotto’sill-fated attempt to persuade the Emperor to support the treaty, and toinvolve him in the family succession issue within the Tokugama clan,was also a nail in the proverbial coffin, furthering the perceptionthat the Shogunate was weak. Slowly, an unlikely coalition of anti-bafuku entities coalesced toundermine the power of the Shogunate. Not all parties were necessarilyadvocates of the ending of the Tokugawa dynasty, but all agreed thatthe Shogunate’s indecisiveness, stalling, and inconsistent policymakingsince 1853 had greatly weakened Japan’s strength as a nation bothinternally and externally. The coalition, over time, came to includemiddle-to-lower class samurai, mostly from the western clans of Tosa,Hizen, Satsuma, and Choshu; the kuge, or the Emperor and his court, whoafter centuries of staying out of the mechanics of governance, had cometo believe that the Shogunate had not only usu rped the power of theEmperor, but stained its dignity and divinity; merchants, from citiessuch as Osaka and Kyoto, whose support went beyond the moral and helpedfund revolutionary forces; and lastly, the peasants, whose economicdiscontent led them to provide moral support and also, quite literally,bodies – towards the end of the Shogunate dynasty, they were enlistedas soldiers to fight in the revolution, a break from Japanese traditionwhich relied on the samurai class to engage in Japan’s wars. It is important to note here that the socio-cultural and economicforces that led to the disintegration and overthrow of the Shogunatedid not resemble those of other notable modern revolutions, such as theFrench or American. The Meiji Revolution, as it came to be known(after the name of the Emperor who assumed rule over Japan after the15th Shogun), was not revolution for democracy, or a revolution inwhich the lower classes bound together to overthrow the repressive yolkof an i ndolent and tyrannical ruling class: In studying Japanese social history, it becomes apparent that one mustdismiss all preconceptions based on a class-struggle interpretation†¦[The Meiji Revolution] was not the story of a rising business classthat destroyed the structure of feudalism and established its supremacyin a mercantile state. Still less was it a democratic revolttransferring political power to representative of the mass of thepeasants and workers. (Norman, 1940) Nor was the discontent with the Shogunate necessarily an issue ofhatred of foreigners; many within the Imperial Court and otheranti-Shogunate forces (and even within the Shogunate itself), despitetheir loathing of the ‘barbarians,’ as many termed foreigners, reasonedthat the best way for Japan to ensure its survival was to embraceuseful Western technologies and military tactics; the temporarydistaste for Western influences the majority of Japanese may have hadto endure for a time would be ame liorated by the Japanese eventuallyco-opting the Westerners’ own superiority and using it against them.This is in fact exactly what eventually occurred. Having obtained word of the favorable outcome, at least from theBritish perspective, of Townsend Harris’ negotiations with theJapanese, James Bruce, the 8th British Earl of Elgin, included in hisFar East trip to China a diplomatic stop in Edo on August 17, 1858.He had little idea of what his chances would be to make any tradeheadway with the Japanese. He was personally loathe to engage in anyhardball tactics against the Japanese, having grown weary of thebrutality utilized against the Chinese: â€Å"Elgin had no desire to transfer to Japan the methods he had foundnecessary in China†¦ Hewanted to like the Japanese†¦He sometimes wonderedwhether Japan might not be better without treaty relations, whether, indeed, treaties might not bring her only ‘misery and ruin.’† (Cortazi, 1999) However , the Japanese were in acooperative frame of mind, and had abandoned their stalling tactics.In his favor, the Earl also had been given use by Townsend Harris ofhis Dutch interpreter-secretary, Mr. Heusken; in addition, he hadbrought with him a steam yacht that Sir James Stirling had promised togive as a gift to the Shogun in 1855. Astonishingly, the Earl wasable to conclude, on August 26, 1858, a treaty of his own with theJapanese that was inspired by and, in its final incarnation., largelymirrored the agreement which Townsend Harris had made, right down tothe treaty’s title. The Earl secured similar port-opening privilegesfor the British as the Americans had obtained, and also was able toobtain permission for the opening of a diplomatic office in Edo. Thesame inequitable tariff structure was agreed upon, unfortunately, whichwould only compound the instability and resentment against theShogunate as alluded to previously. Sir Rutherford Alcock arrived in Edo in 1859, to ass ume the positionof British consul to Japan; he was soon promoted to the title ofMinister. Alcock began his career as a doctor, then joined themilitary to serve as a surgeon for the marines in the First Carlist Warwith Spain. He was later appointed deputy inspector-general forhospitals, a position from which he retired in 1837. In 1842, however,he responded to his government’s call and went to Fuchow, China, tobecome consul there. He distinguished himself under difficultcircumstances, mastering the intricacies of a culture as ancient andcomplex as that of the Japanese, and was hence awarded his assignmentto Japan in 1858. However, given the fact that the British positionin Japan was not one of inherent power, as de facto conquerors, as itwas in China – the British were at best uneasily tolerated guests –Alcock quickly found himself struggling to execute hisresponsibilities. â€Å"His biggest problems arose from the weakness,vacillations, prevarications and decep tions of the Japanese authoritieswith whom he had to deal, but he was also not helped by the greed of,and sleaze prevailing among, the first British merchants who came toJapan.† (Cortazi, 1999) Many of the merchants were unfamiliar with anduninterested in the Japanese culture, and focused primarily onmaximizing their trading profits and exiting. This did not help theircause with the local Japanese who regarded the British as rude,uncouth, and lacking in civility. As the power of the Shogunate overits local principalities began to disintegrate during their internecinesquabble, British diplomatic personnel in Edo and in the local portsbecame increasingly unsafe. None of the treaties signed with the Westcontained any stipulations for protection of the foreign diplomats ortraders; either this was naively overlooked, or the provisions in thetreaties regarding prosecution of Japanese or British/American criminalactivities were thought to adequate. They were not. On July 5, 1861,the British Legation at Shinagawa was attacked by a large party ofronin, or renegade samurai warriors. Alcock narrowly escaped with hislife, and members of his party were wounded. Another attack occurredthe following year while Alcock was vacationing back home in England.It was widely believed that the would-be assassins were rebelliousmembers of the Satsuma clan. It is worth pausing here to explain the concept of the ronin. Theywere samurai who had lost their masters – princes or other dignitarieshigher up on the Shogunate food chain either because their mastershad been killed or fallen into disrepute. Under Japanese cultural codeat the time, samurai could not enter into the employ of a new masterwithout permission from the previous one, which in the case of anuntimely master’s death made it difficult to secure such permission.These ronin often committed suicide or became seedy, ruthlessmercenaries desperate for survival. The increasing instability andinfighting of th e Tokugawa Shogunate during the American and British‘opening’ of Japan resulted in many samurai being forced into roninstatus, and many blamed the influx of foreigners for their unfortunatefates. Henry Heusken, Harris Townsend’s secretary and interpreter,made a prophetic observation about them: The ronin, although they are rogues, always wear two swords because oftheir noble birth, even though their hearts are depraved. Having losttheir reputations as honorable men, they wish to regain respect bygaining an evil reputation. They wish to demonstrate everywhere thatthey are brave and the man who has the most scars is looked upon astheir chief and is honored accordingly. (Van Der Corput, 1964, p. 182) Heusken was immensely popular amongst many Japanese for his kindnessand respect of them, and his willingness to learn their language andimmerse himself in their culture. He enjoyed spending his free timemingling with common Japanese citizens. For this reason he ma de aneasy target, both symbolically and literally, for those elements wholoathed the foreigners’ presence on Japanese soil. Huesken was warnedon January 7, 1861, by Oguri Tadamasu, the inspector general who hadvisited the United States the previous year, of rumours of an imminent,large-scale attack on the American Legation by rogue forces. On thenight of January 15, Heusken was attacked by seven ronin whilereturning from the Prussian embassy, and mortally wounded. He managedto survive for a day, despite laying on the road without medicalattention for almost 90 minutes in the aftermath of the attack.Townsend Harris was so shocked and distraught by Heusken’s murder thatit was rumoured that he went temporarily insane. He submitted hisresignation to President Lincoln on July 10, 1861, and shortly beforeyear’s end, he left Japan forever despite pro-American factions in theShogunate’s entreaties to President Lincoln that he stay on asambassador. In the after math of Huesken’s murder and the first attack on theBritish Legation, Alcock made the decision to withdraw the bulk of theBritish diplomatic corps to Yokohama. Within months, the British senttroops to Yokohama, as did the French (who had signed their own treatywith the Japanese in 1858) – an action not sanctioned by Lord Elgin’streaty and a move which, though reasonable in terms of self-defense,did little to endear the British to the Japanese. Alcock was becomingprogressively disillusioned with the situation in Japan after havingbeen initially entranced and possessing charitable and respectfulfeelings for the Japanese: ..although the original negotiators were received with smiles, andtheir path strewn with flowers, their successors had only the poisonedchalice held to their lips, thorns in their path, and the scowl of thetwo-sworded samurai to welcome them, whenever they ventured to leavetheir gates, while the assassin haunted their steps, and broke theirrest i n the still hours of the night with fell intent to massacred thewhole Legation. (Williams, 1963, p. 58) The British were to find themselves taking the military and diplomaticlead in Japan during this time period. Heusken’s murder and theincreasing attacks on the British had dimmed Harris’ interest inJapanese affairs; both he and Alcock had concluded that the Shogunatewas becoming too weak a political entity to either maintain internalstability or safeguard the foreign diplomats and traders. Also, theAmerican Civil War, which had been fomenting for some time, violentlycommenced in April 1861 and soon commanded virtually all the attentionand military resources of the U.S. government. Immediately precedinghis decision to resign, Harris wrote his Secretary of State, WilliamSeward, informing him of the attacks on the British Legation.Unsurprisingly, given the matters compelling his attention, Seward didnot respond until October, but the content of his reply was telling: The assaults committed upon the minister of Great Britain and the othermembers of that legation, in violation of express treaty, of the lawsof nations, and of the principles of common humanity, have excited adeep concern on the part of the President. Your prompt, earnest, anddecided proceedings in aid of the just desire of her BritannicMajestys minister to obtain adequate satisfaction for that out ragemeet his emphatic approval. I have lost no time in assuring the Britishgovernment directly of the willingness of the United States toco-operate with it in any judicious measure it may suggest to insuresafety hereafter to diplomatic and consular representatives of thewestern powers in Japan. (Seward, 1861) These were no mere diplomatic niceties. Seward was keenly awarethat the Confederacy, the rebel South which had seceded from the Union(the North) to prompt the Civil War, had been actively soliciting thesupport of England and France in the war, to such an extent that theentreatie s went beyond simple economic and military assistance toformal requests that England and France enter the war on the side ofthe Confederacy. Cotton, which was the number one export of theAmerican South, was also a lucrative source of revenue for Europe, andthe British and French were loathe to consider the economicconsequences of a potential disruption or outright loss of thiscommodity. The first 18 months of the war had gone disastrously forthe Union, and such intervention on the part of either England orFrance would have likely tipped the scales fatally in favor of theConfederacy. Seeking to shore up Union support with the British,Seward essentially was signaling his approval, on behalf of PresidentLincoln, for the British to take the lead in Japan and sort the matterout as they saw fit, with enthusiastic Union support. Beyond that, theUnion simply did not have the military resources to send additionalships and men to Japan to attend to the problem. Harris was surelyaware of this, and between his grief for the murder of Heusken and thedeteriorating internal Japanese situation – not incidentally, hepersonally disliked Alcock he elected to end his diplomatic careerat its zenith and return to the United States, effectively cedingcontrol of diplomatic leadership to Alcock and the British. In 1862, Alcock accompanied a group of Japanese dubbed the JapaneseMission, to Europe and to England as part of the original treatystipulations signed by Lord Elgin. One of the official purposes of theportion of the visit to London was to make progress in further tradenegotiations with the Japanese. An agreement was signed there on June6, 1862, which came to be known as the London Protocol. Given thesecurity concerns, and as a gesture of help to the ever-falteringTokugawa Shogunate to modulate British influx into Japan, Alcock andthe British Foreign Secretary agreed that the opening of the ports ofNiigata and Hyogo (also known as Kobe), as well as the establishment o fBritish residences in Edo and Osaka, would be deferred for five years.In exchange, and perhaps under duress due guilt over the violenceagainst the British, the Japanese agreed to: abolish ‘all restrictions, as regards quantity or price, on the sale byJapanese to foreigners of all kinds of merchandise’. Other articlesabolished restrictions on the hire of Japanese labour and otherrestrictions limiting trade in the Treaty Ports as well as‘restrictions imposed on free intercourse of a social kind betweenforeigners and the people of Japan’. (Cortazzi, 1999) The penalty for failure to comply with any of these treatyprovisions was that the delays on opening of ports and residences wouldbe negated. This, particularly combined with the language facilitatingcultural interchange, set up an impossible Catch-22 that only served toexacerbate the steadily deteriorating situation in Japan. Unsurprisingly, then, it was not long after Alcock had returned toJapan that the violence resurfaced in dramatic fashion. On September14, 1862, a British merchant from Shanghai named Charles LennoxRichardson was murdered in Yokohama by Satsuma samurai. Richardson andtwo comrades happened to be passing a 1,000-man procession of theSatsuma daimyo (feudal leader/clan warlord) Shimazu Hisamitsu on theTokaido road in Yokohoma. It was Japanese custom to dismount one’shorse out of respect to a daimyo if one happened to pass by; Richardsonand his party failed to do after being ordered to do so. Whether thistranspired out of intrasigence or out of ignorance is still a matter ofdebate. In any case, they were attacked by samurai from Shimazu’sprocession in this gruesome event that became known as the NamanugiIncident. (In what was doubtlessly not a coincidence, the particularsamurai who killed Richardson turned out to be the older brother of thesamurai who had assassinated Ii Naosuke two years earlier.) Alcock wasshocked, and demanded that the Shogunate p ay the an indemnification sumof 100,000 pounds – a staggering amount of money in 1862 – and that theSatsuma daimyo pay 25,000 additional pounds, in addition to executingthe samurais who had attacked Richardson’s party. The Shogunate paidtheir portion, but by this point, the Bakufu were in no position ofauthority whatsoever to reign in rebellions forces, particularly theincreasingly powerful Satsuma. The daimyo flatly refused to complywith Alcock’s demands and the Shogunate was unable to compel theSatsuma to obey their orders. Alcock was enraged, and finally reactingunder pressure from other foreign powers to take action, the Britishnaval fleet shelled the city of Kagoshima in August 1863, destroying asubstantial portion of the city as well as three of the Satsuma clan’sships, though miraculously, only a few Japanese were killed. This wasan immensely unpopular move back home in England, and Alcock was one ofthe individuals blamed for the debacle. He was eventually replaced in1865 by Sir Harry Parkes. One of the most important Western figures in all of modern Japanesehistory happened to arrive, by coincidence or synchronicity, one weekbefore the Namanugi Incident. He was a 19-year old student interpreternamed Ernest Satow. Mr. Satow was cut from the same mold as HenryHeusken, in the sense that he did not possess condescending, pitying,or superioristic attitudes towards the Japanese, personality flaws thatplagued the vast majority of Westerners who had lived and worked inJapan in the years before Satow arrived. He took an active interest inthe intricacies of Japanese culture and mastered the immenselydifficult Japanese language (no small feat given that at the time ofhis arrival in 1862, there was no such thing as a Japanese-Englishdictionary!); he was arguably the first serious Western scholar ofJapanese literature, and amassed a stunning collection Japanese books.He more than intermingled with the Japanese people – h e took acommon-law Japanese wife, Takeda Kane, with whom he had two sons, namedEitaro and Hisayoshi. He became an intimate confidant of the keypower players who engineered the transition from the Tokugama Shogunateto the restoration of the rule of the Emperor, and in fact became amajor power player himself in this process, as we will explore later.To this day, he is still a celebrity in Japan, though ironically, he isby comparison largely forgotten in England. Satow was on board one of the British warships that bombed theSatsuma city of Kagoshima, and memorialized the occasion in his widelyadmired 1921 book A Diplomat in Japan: A Diplomat in Japan: The InnerHistory of the Critical Years in the Evolution of Japan. (Though notpresent during the Namanugi Incident, Satow was of the opinion thatRichardson and his party were not at fault, as he narrates in the book:â€Å"They were now ordered to turn back, and as they were wheeling theirhorses in obedience, were suddenly set upon by s everal armed menbelonging to the train, who hacked at them with the sharp-edged heavyswords.† (Satow, 1921, p. 48)) Even at this early juncture in hisdiplomatic career, Satow’s personal feelings about the disproportionalsavagery of the British punishment were indicative of his sympathy forthe Japanese. Satow claims that during the bombardment, Vice AdmiralKuper knew exactly how much damage was being inflicted on Kagoshima andseemed to almost be enjoying himself. â€Å"†¦rockets were fired with theobject of burning the town†¦ Admiral Kuper took credit for thedestruction.† (Satow, 1921, p. 84) Satow then goes on, in the book. tomake a specific point of agreeing in retrospect with Lord Bright fromthe British House of Commons, saying he â€Å"called attention to thisunnecessary act of severity.† (p. 85) Details of Final collapse of the shogunate †¦ Satow’s role in shogunate collapse, as pseudonymous author ofeditorials in Japanese n ewspapers in which he boldy asserts that theshogunate was never the rightful heir to the rulership of japan andthat it is time for the emperor to step back in. †¦1867 as the Shogunate was about to collapse, people took to thestreets across the nation in a massive, collective expression of relieftinged with exhaustion. â€Å"Some difficulty was experienced in making ourway through the crowds of people in flaming red garments dancing andshouting over and over ‘ii ja nai ka.’ [loosely translated as, ‘oh,what the hell!’] They were so much taken up with their dancing that wepassed along almost unnoticed.† (Satow, 1921, p. 252) Meiji restoration, Satow’s relationship with the new imperial court / government. Changes in Japanese society. Satow’s departure from japan. Historical ramifications into war with Russia and into aggressive Japanese behavior in the 20th century.

African American Humanities - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1410 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/09/11 Category Literature Essay Type Analytical essay Level High school Topics: Africa Essay America Essay Influence Essay Did you like this example? African American Humanities Introduction American literature drew much of its influence from their culture and history. For instance, the African American literature that is, short stories, poems and novels talk much about the Africans Americans’ culture, social inequality, slavery, racism, their sufferings and frustrations. These themes were incorporated through oral forms like rap, blues, gospel music, spirituals, or sermons. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "African American Humanities" essay for you Create order There were efforts by the Western world to rid off African Americans of the brutal sufferings they faced through slavery, racism, and pogroms. The African Americans were subjected to alienation, disesteem, and rejection to ensure that they never reached to the knowledge of their identity. It is through this paradoxical status of the African Americans that the African American writers, for instance James Baldwin, Ralph Ellison, Langston Hughes, Richard Wright, and among others, were in a position to forge their identity based on the travails and the torments they experienced.   W Du Bois once stated that African American literature was part of their campaign for political emancipation (Thornton, 734). Jazz music, for instance, emanated from the tunes composed during this time as they celebrated their hard labor. It was the only time they could celebrate and enjoy since they lived in difficult times of slavery. After the abolition of slavery, jazz music developed from these e arly tunes and constituted the message of difficult times they experienced during slavery. Another problem that dominated the African Americans was the racial prejudice. It is the attempt of advocating for equal rights and abolition of racial discrimination that African-American writers developed their themes around. The African American literary works like the songs and poems have powerful imagery, sublime themes and special vocabulary that is attributed to the significant contribution to the world culture. The double-consciousness of the African Americans prompted the African American writers to discover their true self through various ways. For instance, James Baldwin escaped to Europe just to discover his self that could not be realized in America due to the existing social conditions that subordinated self-determination of the African-Americans. The Negroes encountered difficulties in identifying their ethnicity and cultural orientation because they belong to two races. The rejection of the â€Å"racial uplift† during the Harlem Renaissance by the African American writers like Zora Neale Hurston, Jean Toomer, and Claude McKay led to the celebration of the African Americans’ color and vividness through cultural essays, poetry, and drama in the African-American fiction (Thornton, 736). What are some of the ways that African American historical experience is reflected in the works of poems, short stories, and novels? The historical experience of African-American is reflected in the African American performance in poems, short stories, and novels. The performances helped the African Americans to have a clear understanding of both their past and present through reconstructing and perpetuating their experiences of a mythic past. The performances were carried out in ritualistic and historic continuum. According to Gale (11), rituals, pure celebration, educating the audience on the meaning of the stories formed part of the performance of th e story telling, and creation of the story telling stage. This was represented in the story telling performance as a black church. The juxtaposition of the acts and voices in terms of response and call in the storytelling performance is said to connect with â€Å"a continuum of African to African-American performance† (Gale 11). The African-American literature used the oral traditions, religion, theatre, and folkways to illustrate the transition of the â€Å"African sacred to secular performance† (Gale 12). This was reflected in the storytelling performance through weaving or collage of story in efforts to relay meaning and recognition. The use of specific symbolic patterns of words and actions in the story telling performance exemplifies the recording and telling the history of African Americans, and acknowledging and coping with their present worldview of duality for cultural survival. The African American literature is characterized by creation and sharing of var ious forms of art like the folklore, autobiography, and spirituals and blues. The literature exemplifies the African cultural philosophy that is rich in symbolic acts and texts, as well as its own grammatical, ordinal, and ritual structure. Gale (12) that symbol systems of Africa were evident in black performances during events like Southern burial markers and religion, Pinkster, in carnivals, indicate it in the linguistic dozens, in the religious witness, susus, and secret orders, and jubilees. The symbols in the African-American literature encoded a circular philosophy of life, correlative conception of divinity, and community creativity. The symbols also encoded conception of the empowering and ordering force of rituals. The memories of the old world were brought into the new world through the performance of pan-African poetics. Why were African American poets drawn to musical models such as jazz and blues as a source of inspiration in their writing? The African American po ets collaborated with musicians as well as composers in the creation of choral works, tone poems, opera, jazz, and other forms of songs. Te reasons behind the connection of jazz and poetry can be explained in terms of seeking connection between the values in the jazz lyrics and the definitions in the traditional poetry. A number of people rate songs in terms of its lyrics, that is, poetry. The creation of the song, â€Å"Strange Fruit† by Billy Holiday, was derived from Lewis Allen’s original poetic work. According to Hayden Carruth, who is a poet, indicates that poetry and jazz connection is a twentieth century spontaneous improvisation of personal and conventional determined style. He states that Jazz is a random, open-ended, indeterminate and improvised poem. It is also important to note that the twentieth African American poets collaborated with musical models such as jazz because Jazz is significant in the American culture through its influence in the poetic dictions. Musical models also set the mood for the poetic themes. Poetry is embedded in musical lyrics. This connection of jazz and music originated from the church services that were conducted by plantation blacks. The electric nature of Jazz talk inspired the writing of the African American poets because the jazz was â€Å"highly electric† and combined well with jargons of prostitution, gambling, dance, music, gambling, and larceny. The incorporation of jazz and blues as an inspiration for the writings by African American literary works was because these forms of music reflected the spirit of complicated experience of the Negroes, the African spirit (Benston 339). How did Amiri Baraka and Ralph Ellison use elements from jazz and blues as a base for their literary styles? Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) used elements of jazz music in the recording of a number of his poems. An example of Amiri Baraka’s poetic jazz combination was the infamous â€Å"Black Dada Nihili smus† that was described to be didactic, apocalyptic, and brutal work of the 1965. Amiri Baraka’s literary work was characterized by overwhelming rhythms, strong imagistic sense, and sophisticated hard message. Amiri Baraka indicated that the poetry was a form of music (Wallenstein 613). Ralph Ellison in his literary works incorporated Euro-American structures, the blues, the chanted sermon, the folktale and other vernacular forms. The backbone of the literary works by Ellison and Baraka was the collaboration with black music, especially, the blues to bring about the Afro-American cultural matrix. The African spirit in the blues prompted them to use jazz and blues as a basis for their literary styles (Benston, 339). How were the political changes taking place in the 1960s and 1970s reflected in the poetry of the Black Panther Party? The political changes of the 1960s and 1970s were reflected in the poetry of the Black Panther Party because the literary works were inspired by revolution concept. The poetry was tailored towards the themes of redefinition, war and rage influenced by Malcolm X. The African-American poetry of the 1960s insulted, and sought for compensation of the historical injustices that meted on them by the whites. The poems were constructed in free verse, to create a difference between the Whites and Negros. The Black Panther poetry served as an educational entertainment art in print, on stage, as well as in the community (Jennings 110). References Gale, Jackson. â€Å"The Way We do: A Preliminary Investigation of the African Roots of African-American Performance.† Black American Literature Forum, 25.1 (Spring, 1991): 11-22 Jennings, Regina. â€Å"Poetry of the Black Panther Party: Metaphors of Militancy.† Journal of Black Studies, 29.1 (Sep., 1998): 106-129. Thornton, Jerome E. â€Å"The Paradoxical Journey of the African American in African American Fiction.† New Literary History, 21.3 (Spring, 1990): 733-745. Wallenstein, Barry. â€Å"Poetry and Jazz: A Twentieth-Century Wedding.† Black American Literature Forum, 25.3 (Autumn,1991): 595-620

The Grand Budapest Hotel By Wes Anderson - 1204 Words

After I watched the Wes Anderson’s The Grand Budapest Hotel, I was surely struck with splendid mise en scene of this movie. In this year’s Oscar ceremony, Wes Anderson’s movie, The Grand Budapest Hotel just got three awards: the best art, the best costume and the best make up. Honestly, this fact lured me into watching the movie, The Grand Budapest. Since I expected a beautiful art work through this movie, I could easily fall into this pastel-colored movie as soon as I started watching the movie, The Grand Budapest, and I could realize that this movie must be one of the best movies in my life according to several reasons. In fact, the plot of this movie was kind of simple story to me. Even though the plot was uncomplicated, the story of this movie was actually enough to attract audience’s mind in not long running time. The movie, The Grand Budapest Hotel starts with the young writer’s novel, The Grand Budapest Hotel. A young writer meets the owner of the grand Budapest hotel, whose name is Moustafa or Zero, in grand Budapest hotel by accident. After they meet, the owner invites a young writer for dinner in order to tell how the owner could get the big hotel. Once the owner starts speaking about his anecdote relating to the grand Budapest hotel, the movie leads us to the flashback scenes so that the real story of the movie can start. In 1927, one day when world war was still beginning, one of the customers of grand Budapest hotel, who is the richest woman in the world, and isShow MoreRelatedThe Grand Budapest Hotel By Wes Anderson1233 Words   |  5 Pagesreleased around the world. One f ilm, not often heard of by young adults, is The Grand Budapest Hotel. Directed by Wes Anderson, this delightful film was released â€Å"March 28, 2014, in the United States of America† (IMDB). The film, collaboratively written by Wes Anderson, and Hugo Guinness, was inspired by the writings of Stefan Zweig, and produced by Fox Searchlight Pictures and Indian Paintbrush. The Grand Budapest Hotel, addresses the shallowness of life while delighting its audience with colorfulRead MoreThe Grand Budapest Hotel ( Wes Anderson1543 Words   |  7 Pages The Grand Budapest Hotel (Wes Anderson, 2014) is a story about story as told by a storyteller. It builds these stories around quirky visual aesthetics, so much so, that some may complain it lacks any real message or meaning. And to some extent they are right, if we are to believe its director Wes Anderson: â€Å"when I do a movie, all I want to do is make an experience that can be as strong a version of whatever it is as it can be. 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The movie is interesting and beautifully shot comedy directed by Wes Anderson. The Grand Budapest Hotel consists of a prologue, five parts, and an epilogue. The film features many successful actors, but the main story revolves around an interesting narration of Zero MoustafaRead MoreThe Grand Budapest Hotel, By F. Murray Abraham1778 Words   |  8 PagesWes Anderson has truly outdone himself with his 100 minute long masterpiece The Grand Budapest Hotel. The film, set around the 1930 s, depicts an epic adventure filled with eye-catching aesthetics, extravagant characters, deadpan humour and witty dialogue in a dollhouse-like world. The director’s precise measurements of drama, deadpan comedy and engaging narrative paired with the mesmerising voice overs of Jude Law, as The Author, and F. Murray Abraham, as the older Zero Moustafa, make for a wonderfullyRead MoreAnalysis Of The Grand Budapest Ho tel 1802 Words   |  8 Pages12/3/15 The Grand Budapest Hotel To give a proper analysis of The Grand Budapest Hotel, it is necessary to understand the several layers through which the story is told. The film begins with a monologue from the narrator (presumably in the present day) describing to the audience what it is to be a storyteller. He then proceeds to give an exact account of how he, a writer, came to meet and have dinner with an old gentleman named Zero Mustafa when he was staying at Grand Budapest during its declineRead MoreAnalysis Of The Grand Budapest Hotel 2195 Words   |  9 Pageswhose work is considered to have a distinctive style and innovative. Wes Anderson exemplifies the concept of auteurism due to his personal influence, and artistic control in his movies. His films feature a continuity of technical aspects with similar themes of familial drama and disgruntlement. From his well-composed mise en scene to classic pan shots, his style has surely become an acclaimed signature. The Grand Budapest Hotel, The Darjeeling Limited, and The Royal Tenenbaums are chosen from Anderson’s

What is Forensic Psychology - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2581 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/08/05 Category Psychology Essay Level High school Tags: Forensic Psychology Essay Did you like this example? Forensic psychology is a newer branch of psychology that is often times misconceived due to its portrayal in the media. A forensic psychologists role has many distinctions from other branches of psychology and is much more demanding than most may believe. The American Psychological Association depicts forensic psychology as the application of clinical specialties to the legal arena (Ward). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "What is Forensic Psychology?" essay for you Create order The profession requires that forensic psychologists become familiar with all psychological concepts, the criminal justice system, and the laws applicable to that particular state. A simplified description of forensic psychology is the merger of law and psychology (Forensic Psychology Careers). Before pursuing a career as a forensic psychologist, one must consider many factors about the field. There are several topics that will be covered in the document, beginning with the education requirements that individuals must meet before they can become licensed. Then, dependent upon ones interest, there is a selection of settings that one can choose to work in. Concepts such as salary and job outlook will also be discussed as well as the misconceptions of the role of a forensic psychologist. All of these components are important to consider when deciding whether or not this is an acceptable profession. While conducting research on this topic, an interview was conducted withDr. Louis Cerbo is a forensic psychologist working as the Clinical Director for the State of Rhode Island Department of Corrections. He is also an adjunct professor at Roger Williams University in the Psychology Department. His personal experience and expertise will be mentioned throughout this document. Dr. Cerbo, he explained that he decided to go into a career in forensic psychology because he had degrees in psychology and also had an interest in law, so he believed this would be a good career for him because it brought his two passions together. Data Section Education Requirements There are many careers that individuals can pursue with a forensic psychology degree, but they can be limited depending on the level of the degree. The figure below, shows the possible careers for a forensic psychology degree at that particular level. Bachelors Degree Victim Advocate Court Liaison Law Enforcement Officer Probation Officer Masters Degree Jury Consultant Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor Juvenile Offenders Counselor Research Assistant Doctorate Degrees Forensic Psychologist Expert Witness Psychology Professor/Instructor Psychology Researcher Figure 1: Careers with a Forensic Psychology Degree Data from: What Can I Do This document will focus specifically on a career as a forensic psychologist; however, there are a multitude of careers that someone can have with a degree in forensic psychology. Those with undergraduate degrees in forensic psychology are the most confined because they are not qualified to provide certain services. Despite not being eligible for particular roles, these careers are still important within the criminal justice system. Those who decide to obtain a masters degree in forensic psychology are still not qualified to be licensed as a psychologist, but they would still be working directly with victims and offenders. Individuals who decide to complete a doctoral degree are eligible to receive a psychologist license. Having this degree along with the proper training hours, allows a person to perform examinations on clients in addition to providing treatment for them. There are more options in the field for people who have a doctoral degree in forensic psychology and among those choices, the most common would be a forensic psychologist (What Can I Do). In order to be a qualified as a forensic psychologist, one must have a doctoral degree recognized by the American Psychological Association (Ward). A doctoral degree in psychology can be a PsyD or PhD degree, which both provide the ability to be accepted as a licensed psychologist. These degrees vary, so it is important for individuals to understand the differences between them because it can have an impact on the education one receives and the type of internship work they experience (What Can I Do). There are less PsyD programs offered, but they accept more into their programs. They have become more popular recently, because they give students the ability to graduate earlier than students in PhD programs. PsyD programs focus on using the skills and knowledge gained in their work to apply to practice whereas, PhD programs have an emphasis on research over practice (Pomerantz, p.14). When Dr. Cerbo decided he wanted to become a forensic psychologist he had to decide on his educational track. He already had his undergraduate degree as well as two masters degrees, one in clinical psychology and the other in personality and social psychology. His next decision was to decide if he wanted to pursue a PhD or PsyD degree. He applied to both programs; however, he chose a PhD program ultimately because there were few PsyD programs at the time. This was taking place during the 1980s and he was unsure of the future of a PsyD degree since some states would not license those with PsyD degrees. Another potential problem would have been that with a PsyD degree it would be hard to get internships, which could result in lack of training. Dr. Cerbo explains that PsyD programs today, are now much more accepted than they previously had been. Despite the fact that both programs recognized equally in todays society, he still would have chosen a PhD degree because he wanted more of a r esearch background. Figure 2: Education Track Source: www.eLearners.com The visual above shows an overview of the path it takes to become a forensic psychologist. The track begins with four years of undergraduate education to complete a bachelors degree, typically focused on psychology, criminology, and forensics (Forensic Psychology Careers). The next step can differ for individuals because some may choose to earn a masters degree; however, it is not required and will add another two years to their educational track. The final step is completing a doctoral degree which has an average of three to seven years (How To Become a Psychologist). While in school for a doctorate, an individual must complete one year of a predoctoral internship certified by the American Psychological Association and then have an additional year of experience in the field. Throughout this process, students will learn clinical skills that will assist them in their work. Having clinical skills in clinical assessment, interviewing, report writing, strong verbal communication skills a nd case presentation will play an important role in becoming a successful forensic psychologist (Ward). Depending on the state, there may also be additional requirements to complete. Once all of the requirements are met, the aspiring forensic psychologist must pass the state exam in the state they would like to practice in, in order to get their state license to practice. Then they must take the national exam known as the Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology. Once the exams are passed, they are eligible to begin their career as a practicing forensic psychologist (Careers in Forensic Psychology). Work Environments After years of coursework and training, a forensic psychologist has to decide on the work environment they would like to work in. Forensic psychologists have a variety of locations they can work in such as police stations, courthouses, law firms, prisons, jails, and juvenile detention centers (Forensic Psychology Careers). Having an array of settings to work in is an attractive aspect to the field of forensic psychology because individuals can choose many different career paths with their degree. On a large scale, the most common work environments for forensic psychologists to have are careers in law enforcement, clinical, or research and teaching (Forensic Psychology Careers and Job Outlook). Forensic psychologists that choose to work in law enforcement can work in small departments such as local or state where they could be hired as consultants to select, train, and evaluate police officers (Employment Outlook). Forensic psychologists could also work for large agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The FBI employs forensic psychologists as criminal profilers to evaluate past criminal activity in order to to determine fact patterns and potential suspects (Employment Outlook). Although it may seem as if the FBI is the most prevalent place to have criminal profilers, criminal profilers are still strongly used in smaller law enforcement agencies (Forensic Psychology Careers and Job Outlook). Another environment a forensic psychologist can work in is a crime scene and laboratory setting which involves assessing crime scenes, evaluating evidence in a laboratory, and then presenting that evidence in court (Employment Outlook). In addition to working in the law enforcement setting, forensic psychologists can work in the clinical setting. Rather than creating profiles of criminals to help catch them, forensic psychologists will provide services to criminals already in the criminal justice system who are suffering from psychological problems. Forensic psychologists will evaluate offenders and then implement treatment plans. Typically, these forensic psychologists will work in a prison or jail; however, they can also choose to work in psychiatric hospitals or mental health centers (Forensic Psychology Careers and Job Outlook). The third most common work environment for forensic psychologists is in research and teaching. Research plays a critical role in the development of forensic psychology. Forensic psychologists will track the trends of crimes and then utilize this knowledge to help law enforcement (Forensic Psychology Careers and Job Outlook). Forensic psychologists may also teach which can entail a variety of roles. Some can be hired to educate the public on improving public safety and encouraging physical and mental wellness. An example of this, is teaching the public of how exposure to abuse can effect an individual. Forensic psychologists can speak in seminars and arrange clinics to educate law enforcement officers of the relevant information that could help them with understanding and dealing with criminals (Forensic Psychology Careers and Job Outlook). Another option they have is to teach at the undergraduate or graduate level. It is beneficial to share their own personal experiences in the field , so students can better understand relevant topics that would be discussed among the class. Salary The salary for a forensic psychologist can vary based on their degree, work environment, and specialties. There is limited data on the salaries of forensic psychologists, so it is difficult to determine the most accurate mean salary (Careers in Forensic Psychology). According to Payscale, the national average salary for a forensic psychologist is $63,258; however, their salaries have a wide range from around $38,000 to $112,000. The more experience a forensic psychologist has, the higher salary they will receive. The following visual provides the average annual salaries for a forensic psychologist based upon experience level (Average Forensic Psychologist Salary). Figure 3: Data from: www.payscale.com As shown in Figure 3, an entry level forensic psychologist would be making around $50,000 a year in comparison to someone working over 20 years in the field would be making over $100,000 (Average Forensic Psychologist Salary). Other sources also suggest that with more experience and education, forensic psychologists can exceed well over $120,000 annually. Larger departments and cities typically have a higher salary as well (Forensic Psychology Careers and Job Outlook). Some forensic psychologists will choose to provide services in consultation in private practice in order to gain an additional income. Those who choose to do this, on average, can make from $150 to $450 hourly. The earning potential for forensic psychologists continues to grow because of the increased need for expertise on criminal behavior and problems relating to mental health (Employment Outlook). The salaries of forensic psychologists, in general, are similar if not somewhat above the average salary for other careers. Some forensic psychologists believe their decision to go into the field goes beyond the salary of their work. They think that the work they do is making a difference to benefit society; therefore, their salary is not the most influential reason for going in the field of forensic psychology (Forensic Psychology Careers and Job Outlook). Job Outlook According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, there is a very positive job outlook for a career as a forensic psychologist. It also stated that forensic psychologists will most likely experience more than a 10% increase from 2014 to 2024. The projections of job availability for this career may vary based on specializations within the field (Forensic Psychology Careers and Job Outlook).The American Psychological Association explains how forensic psychologists have opportunity to grow within the field in a variety of settings (Careers in Forensic Psychology). In addition to forensic psychologists having a strong job outlook, it also has great job security. There are not many concerns that this job will fade out in the upcoming years because there will always be a need for forensic psychologists (Forensic Psychology Careers and Job Outlook). Despite efforts to prevent or reduce crime, it is inevitable that people will be committing crimes and for those reasons there is a need for forensi c psychologists in order to properly evaluate and treat offenders Misconceptions Forensic psychology is a relatively recent branch of psychology, therefore there are often misconceptions about the role of a forensic psychologist. Television shows and movies portray forensic psychologists as having exciting jobs where they are easily able to understand an offender. This however is not the case, forensic psychologists that profile offenders need a considerable amount of time in order to assess the crime and interpret the offenders motives to predict the type of person that would be committing a particular crime (Ward). A career as a forensic psychologist is much more challenging than many people may recognize. The job can be mentally and physically draining that it may deter some individuals from wanting to work in the career (Forensic Psychology Careers and Job Outlook). It is important for forensic psychologists to have people in their life and activities they enjoy in order to separate their emotionally difficult cases from their life at home. Conclusion Summary of Findings The career of a forensic psychologist requires an extensive amount of education by completing a doctorate degree. The education track requires time and money which may not be available to all individuals. Skills such as in interviewing and case presentation that a forensic psychologist will be obtained throughout their education that will be important for them to succeed in the profession. Forensic psychologists have an array of opportunities to work in different environments including law enforcement, clinical, or research and teaching. The latitude of work settings, as well as a median average salary of $63,258, makes this profession very appealing. Another influential factor of pursuing this career is that it has a positive job outlook providing more job opportunities for those interested in the field. Recommendations Based on the research provided in this document, it can be concluded that a career as a forensic psychologist is feasible. Dr. Cerbo highly recommends this profession for current criminal justice or psychology students. He advises students who are interested in forensic psychology to take both criminal justice and psychology courses in their undergraduate years because it will give students the perspective they will need as a forensic psychologist. Despite a few drawbacks to the job including extensive education and that it can sometimes be draining, the career is becoming more well-known and desirable. The profession of a forensic psychologist is practical for many people because it incorporates aspects from both psychology and the criminal justice system which is what many students are wanting to find. A favorable aspect of this career is that is has so many settings that one can work in, so individuals can decide to specialize in a particular area that most interests them. The car eer of a forensic psychologist is feasible and should be further investigated.

Self Esteem By Carol Craig - 1090 Words

Self-Esteem can be harmful and make people very self centered, but others lack confidence and need a boost of self-esteem. Self-esteem is a very important factor in various reasons that happens in people’s daily life. With no type of thought people don’t think or take self-esteem with importance without realizing that self-esteem is a huge thing that us humans depend for our daily activities. Some shifts that have happened toward self- esteem over the past few decades were the fact that many people don’t really get an effect of having a boost of self-esteem in order for them to reach success. Therefore, self-esteem is not important in the success of individuals but it is important in their well being and psychological health. The history†¦show more content†¦He stated, â€Å"low self-esteem was the cause of crime, teenage pregnancy, drug abuse, and school underachievement† (par. 18). This shows that these are examples of the problems that low self-esteem causes. However, Professor Martin Seligman gave many arguments against the self-esteem movement going against David Hume and John Vasconcellos’ arguments, but supporting Roy Baumeister, the first outright critic of the self-esteem movement, and Nicholas Emler that supported Baumeister’s findings that low self-esteem was not a risk factor for educational problems. Seligman went against the idea that self-esteem could be extremely boosted. So, Craig’s purpose for writing this text is to show that the decreases and increases in self-esteem which are concurrent with failures and successes. In the video â€Å"Why thinking you’re ugly is bad for you† , by Meaghan Ramsey talks about how having a low self- esteem can affect young women more than gentlemen in academics and in daily activities. 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Disability and Child Free Essays

string(65) " may be of a poor quality – suffering damp or be in disrepair\." CYP3. 7 Understand how to support positive outcomes for children and young people. 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Disability and Child or any similar topic only for you Order Now 1 Social factors †¢ Lack of social/friendship networks. Children need friendships to develop their interaction, emotional understanding, empathy and social skills. Children who lack these networks tend to feel isolated and therefore isolate themselves more. They may suffer insecurities about themselves and be withdrawn and shy. They may struggle to communicate, share and understand the needs and feelings of others. As they grow older the insecurities may lead to self-hatred and self-harm. They will lack people to confide in or go to for advice. They may find themselves drawn into ‘the wrong crowd’ because they seem welcoming, and as a result find themselves manipulated. †¢ Poor parental supervision/neglect. Without guidance children do not learn the correct ways to behave. This will cause them to come into conflict at school because they do not know or understand acceptable boundaries. They may be unaware of the dangers they can face in life. They may have a distorted view of their own abilities and may believe that they are allowed to do what they want because they are never prevented. They may believe they are unloved, unimportant and unvalued and as they grow older this could lead to depression and self-harm. The lack of boundaries could result in them becoming involved in crime and anti-social behaviour. Neglect could lead to health problems through malnutrition. They may struggle to form social relationships because of their lack of personal hygiene. Poor clothing could lead to bullying and teasing, causing them to withdraw and become isolated. †¢ Illness/disability If the child suffers from illness or disability they may find they frequently miss school, they may then miss large chunks of their education and struggle to achieve. It may cause them to miss out on activities such as sports, which could leave them feeling isolated. These feelings could develop into anger or resentment and may cause them to have behavioural problems. They may be misjudged as lacking intelligence and therefore not given challenges, leading to boredom and perceived disruptive behaviour. If the child is the carer of a parent suffering illness or disability this can lead to emotional difficulties. The child may struggle to understand the role reversal they are experiencing, viewing themselves as being on a par with adults and more mature than their peers, resulting in them struggling to form friendships. They may become resentful at missing out on their childhood and present challenging behaviour. They may suffer anxiety whilst away from home and worry about their parent, resulting in a failure to engage in their education. They may not fulfil their potential in life as much of it will be dedicated to being a carer. Having a parent with a long term illness or disability could also lead to financial hardship due to lack of employment. Criminal or anti –social behaviour Whether it is behaviour presented by the child, a sibling or parent it could result in the child being taken into care. A parent could be absent for a length of time, if imprisoned, causing emotional stress. The child may perceive the behaviour as normal or acceptable, especially if it is being carried out by the parents and copy it. It may result in a transient lifestyle, as they could be re-housed as a result of anti-social behaviour. This would result in the child suffering a disrupted education and struggling to form long term stable friendships. †¢ Addictions The impact of addictions on children can be various. They can suffer health problems, if their mother had a drug or alcohol problem during pregnancy. They may suffer poverty due to lack of employment, or if the addiction is gambling. They may suffer from neglect, abuse or/and violence. If they have younger siblings they may find themselves responsible for their care and therefore may suffer stress and feel isolated. They may feel scared and find it difficult to speak to people for fear of getting in trouble or going into care. They may ultimately find themselves in care if the addictions result in their parents being unable to care for them. They may become involved in crime to support their family. At school they may be disruptive or withdrawn, have mood swings and outbursts of violence. †¢ Parental separation This can leave a child feeling very insecure and frightened. They may become quiet and withdrawn. They may become very emotional, clingy and tearful or become violent and abusive. They may feel angry, let down and abandoned. Their work and concentration at school may suffer as a result of any stress and worry they may be feeling. They may suffer poverty as a result of a fall in the household income. They may suffer a dramatic change in lifestyle that leaves them confused. Economic and Environmental factors †¢ Poverty This can result from low income, unemployment, parental separation, illness or disability, addictions, or criminal activities. Children may suffer malnutrition or a poor diet as a result of their parents being unable to afford quality food. This could result in lack of concentration or poor performance at school. They could also suffer other health related issues. They may be the subject of bullying as a result of their clothing or because they do not have the latest ‘must have’ accessories. They will probably miss out on further education due to the costs involved, or as a result of the need to find employment to help support the family. †¢ Poor housing One of the side effects of poverty is poor housing. People on low income are often dependent on local authority housing. This may result in overcrowding, for example being housed in a bedsit or home with insufficient bedrooms. This means the child has no privacy, or personal space. They may struggle with homework and course work because of the lack of a quiet space in which to complete it. The housing provided may be of a poor quality – suffering damp or be in disrepair. You read "Disability and Child" in category "Essay examples" This could have a detrimental effect on the child’s health – causing asthma or frequent colds and coughs. It will probably be in a less desirable area or could be in an area with social disorder problems. This may result in the children becoming isolated, as their parents may be fearful of letting them out to play or they may themselves become involved in anti-social behaviour and criminal activities. †¢ Lack of academic achievement Children whose parents have had a poor education or lack numeracy and literacy skills can struggle at school. Their parents may show little or no interest in their education and as a result they may also lose interest. The parents may not attend school progress meetings so they will have little understanding of their child’s achievements and therefore the child will not receive praise and encouragement to continue. The parents will struggle to support the child in homework and coursework and the child will therefore struggle. This may cause them to get in trouble as a result of uncompleted assignments. They might ‘fail’ in their education, as a result, and struggle to get employment as an adult. Cultural factors †¢ Religious beliefs and customs Children may have to attend a school associated with their religion, and may therefore receive a less balanced education. They may struggle to understand other people’s religion or lifestyle choices, if it goes against what they are taught. This may leave them confused or feeling isolated and struggling to interact with the wider community. They may also experience or witness abuse on the grounds of their religious beliefs and customs, leaving them not only confused and isolated but fearful. †¢ Ethnic and cultural customs Children may have different forms of attire, causing them to be teased or bullied. Their culture may view interaction between men and women in a different way and the children will struggle to recognise what is acceptable at school as it differs to home. This could cause them to come into conflict with school rules or to be perceived as a trouble maker. †¢ Transient lifestyle The child and their family could move around frequently; for example they may come from Gypsy Roma Traveller community. This means their education will be inconsistent and interrupted. They will be unable to form close friendships and lack a support network outside their close family and community. Although dealt with separately, many of these factors are interconnected; unemployment or low income can lead to poor housing. Poor housing can lead to health problems, which can lead to frequent school absences. They will not only affect the child’s present lifestyle and health, but also their future, right through to adulthood. This pattern could then continue into the lives of their children. Without support and intervention, they and their families could find themselves trapped in a cycle of disadvantage. . 2 Poverty is on the agenda of the Every Child Matters framework, with one of the outcomes stating that every child should achieve wealth and economic well-being. This means it is important to ensure that children experiencing poverty have the same opportunities as their peers. Impact of poverty can be: Low income: This can mean that children may not have th e same advantages of there more wealthier peers. Poor housing: This could lead to ill health due to unacceptable standards within the home. Ill Health: Not having access to the correct food and warm clothing could affect health. Low academic achievement: This could come due to there not being such an emphasis on the importance to learn or support brackets within the home. Low Self-esteem: Children could have a low self-esteem due to the above factors. 1. 3 In accordance with Article 13 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child, the outcomes of the Governments Every Child Matters framework and the Early Years Foundation Stage, children should be provisioned for by ensuring that children are involved and engaged with, allowing them to be heard, to make decisions, contribute their experiences and be supported and safeguarded throughout their development. Even from an early age, children’s choices, even simple ones, can have an impact on their life chances and outcomes such as choosing which toys to play with at pre-school or which friends to play with, a child may develop a friendship with another child who is perhaps a bit louder and boisterous and may display unwanted behaviour, this choice of friend may have a negative impact on the child’s behaviour at home or in other settings they move onto. Whilst the child has the right to choose their friends, it is our responsibility to involve the child in setting expectations of their behaviour and help them to make a positive contribution, which is one of the outcomes of the ECM framework. Children and young people throughout their lives will make choices such as whether to eat healthily or unhealthily or start smoking or drinking, as any early years setting we ensure that we offer healthy snacks and meals, we involve the children in activities and discussions about the importance of healthy living but there will come a point where they can choose for themselves. If a child/young person chooses to eat unhealthily this will have a negative impact on their wellbeing, they could become overweight, develop diabetes and it could exclude them from taking part in activities, this could continue and have a negative knock on effect throughout their lives perhaps causing them to suffer low self-esteem and become withdrawn from social situations. A child may be raised in an environment where they are allowed to play violent computer games or have families who are in trouble with the police. These experiences could have a negative impact on the way the child/young person develops and integrates into society, they may choose to act the same way and get in trouble or they may not like what they have experienced and choose not to. 2. 1 All practitioners should be striving to achieve the 5 outcomes of the Every Child Matters framework: †¢ Be Healthy †¢ Stay Safe †¢ Enjoy and Achieve †¢ Make a Positive Contribution †¢ Achieve Economic Wellbeing By following the 4 EYFS themes we can see how they link into the ECM Framework. EYFS Theme Supporting Principles Every Child Matters Unique Child 1. 1 Child Development Make a positive contribution 1. 2 Inclusive Practice Make a positive contribution 1. 3 Keeping Safe Stay Safe 1. 4 Health and Well-being Be Healthy Positive Relationships 2. 1 Respecting Each Other Make a positive contribution 2. 2 Parents as Partners Make a positive contribution 2. 3 Supporting Learning Make a positive contribution 2. 4 Key Person Stay Safe Enabling Environments 3. 1 Observation, Assessment and Planning Enjoy and Achieve 3. 2 Supporting Every Child Enjoy and Achieve . 3 The Learning Environment Enjoy and Achieve 3. 4 The Wider Context Make a positive contribution Learning and Development 4. 1 Play and Exploration Enjoy and Achieve 4. 2 Active Learning Enjoy and Achieve 4. 3 Creativity and Critical Thinking Enjoy and Achieve 4. 4 Areas of Learning and Development Enjoy and Achieve Be Healthy – this also includes how our health is affected by our social, mental, emotional a nd physical well-being. The Government has a focus on healthy living for children. At my setting we provide healthy snacks for the children. We also promote healthy choices, talk about healthy hearts and activities that teach them an active lifestyle. Stay Safe – we ensure children in our care are safeguarded. We have a robust safeguarding policy. Children know they can talk to any member of staff if they do not feel safe and they know they will be listened to. Enjoy and Achieve – we observe children so we understand their needs and can then plan more accurately for individual children. Make a Positive Contribution – we are continually assessing and developing our policies to ensure we are always making positive contributions to children’s development. Achieve Economic Well-being – by ensuring we follow all the EYFS and Every Child Matters we are ensuring all children have the best start in life and can go on into adulthood and achieve economic well-being. 2. 2 Recognising that everyone is unique is a first step for seeing the importance. Each child and young person will have a differing set of needs, requirements and barriers that can prevent them accessing ways of achieving success. It is also important to design services around needs because it makes best use of the money available, it targets the services properly, so doesn’t waste time or resources. Putting the child at the centre means, rather than it being about adults and what they want, it is actually about what the child NEEDS. Key issues when designing services to meet children and young people’s needs are: Careful preparation Collaboration of different services Ensuring an up-to-date directory of services available Collaboration between services, children, young adults and parents Integrating information from different services Flexibility in working together Managing change effectively Communication and consultation Outreach – enabling access by visiting rural communities and making home visits Understanding the importance of networking between services. 2. 3 When it comes to children’s participation it is rare to see involvement of children below the age of 8 years. Yet, very young children have the same rights to participation as any other children and they should be equally involved in matters that affect them. Even a two year old child can be meaningfully involved in decision making. Take the example of a parent who prepares the clothes for her son to wear that day. It may well be that the boy says, ‘I don’t like this, I want to wear that! ‘ The mother could then look at what the boy would like to wear and decide whether the clothes will suit the weather conditions. When they do, she could say, ‘okay, fine, you can wear those clothes instead. ‘ When the weather does not permit to wear the clothes the boy has identified, the mother should explain to her son that the clothes are either too hot/or too thin to wear given the circumstances. She can explain what the implications will be when he would wear the clothes he wants – catching a cold for example. This is a clear and simple example of children’s involvement in decision making – in this case with a very young child. It typically happens within the family environment, it is not ‘a big thing’ but it may well be important for the child’s development. The boy has been given an opportunity to be involved in a decision that affects him, he has been given choices, he has received information that will help him understand the implications of his choice. It also shows how the best interest of the child may play a role in such decisions – i. e. he mother’s concern about her son’s health in his choice of clothes to wear. 2. 4 To support children/young people to make personal choices and experiences according to age, needs and abilities we as providers must allow them to express their own thoughts, views and opinions and most importantly listen to them. We must also offer constructive and fair advice appropriate to the age and stage of the child i. e. when a child reaches adolescent you would then think about some form of sex education where as you wouldn’t need to do this with children in the early years. To make advice fair you also need to put your own opinions and experiences to side and concentrate on delivering the facts in a positive way so that the child can then make positive decisions to do with the matter in hand. We can also aid them in completing activities that will allow them to make decisions and make choices and be there to support throughout process of decisions making and when things may go wrong. Also by providing the right environment we are enabling children to make choices that have a positive impact on their future lives. To provide the right environment we provide: Exploration Experimentation Problem solving Take risks safely Variety of activities Accessible resources Resources to meet individual interest and needs Language an interaction Welcome to families of all cultures and religions Places to rest and eat An outdoor learning environment that is challenging ad promotes learning. 3. 1 The potential impact of disability on outcomes and life chances of children and young people are that it can affect the person’s ability to perform normal day-to-day activities, but each child I affected differently by their impairment or condition. If a physical disability it may compromise the child’s healthy development and disrupt their educational experiences and if adults focus on what is ‘wrong’ with a child or young person and what they can’t do, rather than on what they can do and are already achieving, and their potential to develop, learn and progress, then the child’s emotional well-being may be affected by poor self-esteem. Children with learning difficulties or disabilities with emotional or social development may affect children’s all round progress. Families with a disabled child or young person often experience financial difficulties which may restrict children’s opportunities in life – not only that of the disabled child but of their siblings as well. This may result in relationships within families may be destabilised by the stresses of caring for a disabled child. 3. 2 It is important to have positive attitudes towards disability and specific requirements as it is possible to avoid or reduce the impact of their impairment so that the person can have opportunities to make choices, develop to their potential, become independent and play a full part in society. Also, if practitioners have positive attitudes about their capacity to provide for disabled children’s requirements, and are ready to learn new skills such as sign language or using the Makaton system (which we use already), then the children have greater opportunities for making developmental progress. 3. 3 Social model of disability – recognises that discrimination against disabled people is created by society, not by disabled people’s impairment’s. It looks at ways to address issues to enable people to achieve their potential, by looking at ways to adapt the environment so the child can feel included this is very important. The social model has been constructed by disabled people and by listening to what disabled people want and to remove any barriers, which may be in their way. By removing barriers and adapting the environment you are allowing children and young people chances to achieve and learn which promotes confidence and self-esteem. Medical model of disability – this treats the person as a sick patient and tends to focus on ‘How can we make this person more normal? By labelling a child because of their disability can prevent us from seeing the child as a whole person like their gender, culture and social background the medical models is a traditional view of disability and that through medical intervention the person can be cured where in fact in most cases there is no cure. They expect disabled people to change to fit into society. By adjusting our environment to suit the needs of the child and appropriate resources and facilities are provided it allows the child to be confident al so we focus on what the child can do and not on what they can’t do (social). We don’t think of children, as special needs we think of them as children with specific or additional needs. In my setting we aim to give all children the same opportunities and children are not singled out because they have different needs for example all though some children require 1:1 support we don’t remove them from their peers the child will still work in his or her group but they will get extra support. Low expectations about the potential of a disabled child or being over protective can limit what they achieve. It’s important that we have positive attitudes about what requirements we provide so children can have opportunities for making developmental progress (social). We have one child at our setting that suffers from multiple impairment’s. The child is registered blind but can see vaguely so we do have to make sure that walkways are clear and as she is of adolescent age we have had to purchase foldable tables for her height, for her to eat off (social). I don’t think that the medical model of disability impacts on our practice a great deal but I know the child does have medical care for her disability that will never be fully cured (medical). . 4 Different types of support available are * Speech and language therapy- they will usually work in partnership with parents, teachers and support staff and anyone else who has regular contact with the child and provide training and coaching sessions and provide them with ideas and strategies to put into place to help promote t he child’s speech. I myself have sat in on a session with a child in our setting when the speech therapist came to have a meeting with a child and she gave us advice sheets on how best to help the child with his speech including picture cards with words on. Support from health professionals’ additional learning support- a child who has a disability like Down syndrome may need extra support in a setting to help them learn. A child with epilepsy is likely to require regular monitoring from health professionals and medication, which needs to be adjusted appropriately. * Assistive technology- these would be anything which will help someone for example wheelchairs, hearing aids, walking frames and for a child who is blind you could use software which reads text from a screen. There are many different aids available for children and adults to help them with everyday tasks. Specialised services – There are many specialized services i. e. special educational needs coord inator, physio therapist, speech therapists, school nurse, social services. These services are available in order to provide the right care for the child. 4. 1 Equality – each individual in society experiences opportunities to achieve and flourish which are as good as the opportunities experienced by other people. Diversity – the differences between individuals and groups in society arising from gender, ethnic origins, social, cultural or religious background, family structure, disabilities, sexuality and appearance. Inclusion – a process of identifying, understanding and breaking down barriers to participation and belonging. The meaning of these in the context of the positive outcomes for children and young people: Being healthy – Equality – each child should have the same opportunity to lead a healthy lifestyle. Diversity – individuals in the society may have different methods of being healthy, i. e. exercise regimes, and dietary requirements. Inclusion – accepting the child’s and families view on how they stay healthy and helping any child to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Stay safe – Equality – each child should feel safe in their surroundings. Diversity – people may of different views on the level of safety. Inclusion – understanding what makes the child feel safe and maintaining that feeling for the child. Enjoying and achieving – Equality – each child should have the same opportunities to enjoy and achieve as others. Diversity – parents or carers may have different views on what they want their children to achieve and/or what they should be enjoying, i. e. stereotyping –boys do boys things and girls do girls things. Inclusion – each child should have the opportunity to enjoy and achieve no matter their stage of development, making sure children who need more guidance and support get it. Make a positive contribution – Equality – every child should have the opportunity to make a positive contribution no matter what type of contribution and how big or small. Diversity – every child’s input will be different. Inclusion – children’s input, no matter how varied should be acknowledged. Achieve economic well-being – Equality – treating each child equal no matter what economic status they come from. Diversity – each child lives a different life, whether it be economic status, health and disabilities, family background, religion etc. Inclusion – no matter what diverse factors affect the child’s life each child should have the opportunity to achieve economic well-being in their own life. 4. 2 Social services – social workers that work with children aim to support children in need of protection as a result of any form of abuse or neglect. Also for children who need additional services in order to reach a reasonable standard of health and development (for example children with disabilities) and for children who need to be provided with care because they cannot live with their own parents. Speech therapists – Speech and Language Therapists ( SLT) work with parents/carers and others to assess if a child has speech and/or language difficulties, communication or eating and drinking difficulties. The therapist will consider the difficulties the child has and the impact these will have on his/her life. If appropriate the therapist will decide how the child can be helped to reach their full communication potential. OFSTED – Ofsted is the Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills. They report directly to Parliament and are independent and impartial. OFTSED inspect and regulate services which care for children and young people, and those providing education and skills for learners of all ages. OFSTED ensure that we as providers follow the EYFS AND ECM to ensure that children are provided for and are able to develop at a healthy rate. Respite Care – Respite care is the provision of short-term, temporary relief to those who are caring for family members who might otherwise require permanent placement in a facility outside the home. Respite programs provide planned short-term and time-limited breaks for families and other unpaid care givers of children with a developmental delay and adults with an intellectual disability in order to support and maintain the primary care giving relationship. Respite also provides a positive experience for the person receiving care. How to cite Disability and Child, Essay examples

Managerial Cognitive Capabilities and Microfoundations

Question: Discuss about the Managerial Cognitive Capabilities and Microfoundations. Answer: Introduction: The article in the Harvard Business Review portrays the fact that most of the companies fail to appoint right talent in the right designation. It is the reason of lower productivity of the different teams working in different organizations across the world. Most of the companies do not have good managers so that they cannot make higher profit in the market. The reason behind this is faults in the process of recruitment and selection. It is seen that most of the companies fails to recruit right people as they are unable to find the right talent most of the times in the vacancies available for it. Research report has illustrated the fact that companies do not recruit people 82% of the times (Epstein Buhovac, 2014). The main argument of the article states the fact that good managers are responsible for increased profitability whether bad managers can cause losses in huge amount for many companies. Each year, due to bad managers companies spend billions of dollars but they did not get any return out of it. The article states that only 30% of the managers are really engaged in their proper work. Surprisingly when the percentage counts to worldwide, then it reduces to 13%. The main motive of the article lies in the fact that good managers across the world are hard to find whereas bad managers are prevalent everywhere scattered in different parts of the world in different multinational and small medium enterprises. It can be also pointed out as the line of reasoning (Brown, Colville Pye, 2015). Assumptions and limitations While reading the article, the reader must have to understand what message the article is conveying about and what are the assumptions and limitations behind it. By reading the article, it can be clearly understood that it the article is all about research and the researcher has focused on the abilities of a good manager in the organization. However, the article is informative as it gives data regarding various attributes of good and bad managers. But it is based on some assumptions and limitations. The data is collected by conducting research on different organizations that contains few assumptions and limitations (Jansen et al., 2013). The researcher i.e. Gallup in the article has conducted primary researches. The data are provided are based on the views of the respondents i.e. the managers of different multinational companies. The reader has to believe that their views and the data interpretation of Gallup are correct and they provide real life scenarios about the working cultures of the organizations. The limitation of the research in the article is the security of the respondents while conducting the research. Apart from that, the limitation can also be applied to the data sets. It is a possibility that if Gallup has been conducted the research to different organizations, then the results may be different (Hill, Jones Schilling, 2014). Research methodology and research methods The research methodology that is used in the article while collecting the data from the managers is primary research methodology. Primary research methodology is used because it will provide the real life scenarios regarding the duties and responsibilities of managers. It is also helpful in collecting the data regarding the percentage of good managers and bad managers in the organizations. Instead of secondary data, the researcher in the article has chosen to conduct the methodology of primary research in terms of using the methods of interviews and surveys (Too Weaver, 2014). The process of interviews and surveys are though time consuming and cost incurring, but this method has been chosen in order to collect the real time data from the managers whether they are successful in their duties and responsibilities in the organization. Apart from that, it can be said that the quantitative methods of data methodology are used while calculating the data collected from using primary research methodologies. It is mentioned in the article that while conducting the research regarding the managers roles and responsibilities, it can be said that more than 27 million employees over twelve years in more than 2.5 million working units (Mishra, Boynton Mishra, 2014). The article illustrates the fact that the good managers are responsible for generating more revenues from the market as well as the reputation of the company in the market. The report has highlighted the fact that the most of the organizations have failed to recruit people with proper talents in the managerial designation. It is the result of the lower productivity of the team as well as to the organizations across different parts of the world. The percentages of profit collected by the companies having more good managers are much higher than the companies having less good managers (Schnackenberg Tomlinson, 2016). However, it can be said that there is a strong link between the vital performance indicators and employee engagement at the strategic business units of the organizations. The vital performance indicators of the companies include less shrinkage, less absenteeism, lower turnover, higher quality, higher productivity, and higher profitability. It can be pointed that the companies which have higher employee engagement levels are found to be get results better in terms of employee relations, productivity and team performances and overall profitability of the company in the market. These things are happened in a company that has more good managers in it (Bromiley et al., 2015). Relevancy of the findings with the theoretical concepts It can be said that the relating to the capabilities of the managers there are many traits and attributes related to the managers. An ideal manager must have the attitude of leading a team with proper leadership and decision making where the team members must follow the decision taken by the team leader. Apart from that, the team members must have clarity with the team leaders in order to share various issues. The theoretical frameworks used by the managers in this context are normative decision making theory and participative leadership in their fields of practice (Helfat Peteraf, 2015). Normative theory of decision making is known as the theory of choice which represents that advices are provided to the managers while taking best decisions in their workplaces. Normative theory is also known as prescriptive decision making theory that is concerned with the identifying the best decision. It usually portrays the role model of the team who is known for the ideal decision maker due to his fully rationality and perfect accuracy. These people will seek technologies and person who will help them in making a rational and fair decision making process (Hill, Jones Schilling, 2014). Participative leadership on the other hand is a popular leadership theory that can be used by the managers to lead a team which requires involvement of the team members in order to make a proper decision of the team. Involvement of different executives is responsible for the effective decision making process of the company with better new ideas (Jansen et al., 2013). Practical applications of the ideas to real life managers Real life managers must have the behavior and traits that a leader must possess. They have the knowledge of implementation of various theoretical models and frameworks that are related with leadership, decision making and team management. Proper customization of the models is necessary while pointing out the flaws and weaknesses of the team members. Apart from that, they have the knowledge of sense making regarding implementation of various models of leadership to influence the team members in their respective field of work (Collier, 2015). The theoretical frameworks that are identified earlier in the study are not only responsible for the improved decision making of the managers but also these frameworks will help in the identification of problem in the management of the organization as well as problems in the team. The two aspects i.e. normative decision making theory and participative leadership are interrelated with each other. Both these aspects are related with the decision making process of the organization with the involvement of team members of the organization (Brown Trevio, 2014). The team members will also feel a sense of commitment towards their field of work while giving improved productivity of the company. If the team members have a clear communication between the team leaders then the problems of the team regarding lesser productivity of the team along with individual productivity are to be identified. The identification of the problem will help in the formulation of the developmental training in the m ultinational organizations (Yinan, Tang Zhang, 2014). Recommendations to managers The article regarding the competency level of managers suggests many things that managers of organizations can focus in order to maintain their team performance. According to Gallup the managers must have the following talents such as: The managers must motivate each and every employee of the organization while taking action and engaging themselves in the organizational objectives that compels the vision and mission. The managers of the organization must possess assertiveness that will drive the outcomes of the project while having the ability in overcoming resistance and adversity (Brown, Colville Pye, 2015). The managers of the organization must create a culture that will helps in maintaining accountability. The managers are responsible in building relationships that are responsible for creating open dialogue, trust and full transparency. Managers are responsible for making rational decision that are based on the productivity and not on the politics. There are many traits and behavior that a manager must possess to manage the team while improving the individual productivity of the team members (Epstein Buhovac, 2014). Quotations from peer reviewed journals In this section, two quotations are to be cited from two peer reviewed journals that will encompass the role of managers in the decision making process of the organization. The two quotations will be the paraphrased version of the two lines mentioned in the journals. Exploring on the organizational effectiveness introduces in the development of innovation while achieving a long term sustainable processes that will exploit the operational efficiencies for a short term performance in the existing products. However, it can be said that, the study of ambidexterity helps in investigation of the ways that organizations are adopting in order to exploit and explore them simultaneously (Smith, 2014). If the managers adapt changing and complex environments in the modern business world, then it will help them in exploring novel knowledge in various domains that will simultaneously exploit the existing knowledge (Laureiro?Martnez et al., 2015). 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R., Schilling, M. A. (2014).Strategic management: theory: an integrated approach. Cengage Learning. Jansen, R. J., Cur?eu, P. L., Vermeulen, P. A., Geurts, J. L., Gibcus, P. (2013). Information processing and strategic decision-making in small and medium-sized enterprises: The role of human and social capital in attaining decision effectiveness.International small business journal,31(2), 192-216. Laureiro?Martnez, D., Brusoni, S., Canessa, N., Zollo, M. (2015). Understanding the explorationexploitation dilemma: An fMRI study of attention control and decision?making performance.Strategic Management Journal,36(3), 319-338. Mishra, K., Boynton, L., Mishra, A. (2014). Driving employee engagement: The expanded role of internal communications.International Journal of Business Communication,51(2), 183-202. Schnackenberg, A. K., Tomlinson, E. C. (2016). Organizational transparency: A new perspective on managing trust in organization-stakeholder relationships.Journal of Management,42(7), 1784-1810. Smith, W. K. (2014). Dynamic decision making: A model of senior leaders managing strategic paradoxes.Academy of Management Journal,57(6), 1592-1623. Too, E. G., Weaver, P. (2014). The management of project management: A conceptual framework for project governance.International Journal of Project Management,32(8), 1382-1394. Yinan, Q., Tang, M., Zhang, M. (2014). Mass customization in flat organization: The mediating role of supply chain planning and corporation coordination.Journal of Applied Research and Technology,12(2), 171-181.